European monarchs became absolute rulers in response to which of the following?

European monarchs became absolute rulers largely in response to religious and territorial conflicts that caused warfare and revolts. This period, particularly from the late 15th century to the 18th century, was marked by significant instability caused by numerous conflicts, including wars of religion, such as the Thirty Years' War, as well as territorial disputes among European powers.

As these conflicts created chaos and uncertainty, monarchs sought to centralize power to establish order and strengthen their authority. By asserting themselves as absolute rulers, they aimed to reduce feudal fragmentation and consolidate control over their realms, thereby restoring stability. This move was also a means to prevent uprisings and manage the socio-political fallout of wars, ensuring that the monarchy had the means to maintain peace and security.

The context provided by this period is crucial in understanding why absolute monarchy became a preferred governance model. It was a response to the need for effective and decisive leadership in times of turmoil, contrasting with earlier systems where power was more distributed among nobles and local authorities.

The other options, while related to the broader context of European history, do not encapsulate the direct motivation behind the rise of absolute monarchies as effectively as the impact of religious and territorial conflicts.